The bubonic plague, which swept across Europe between 1347 and 1353, is estimated to have killed up to one half of the continent’s population. The sudden loss of life led to the abandonment of farms, villages and fields, creating what researchers describe as a massive historical ‘rewilding’ event.

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Ritter’s research shows that underpricing is de rigueur in IPOs, and on average, the shares jump 19% over what the chosen institutions paid by the end of the first trading day. “The ability to give their clients underpriced shares is worth a lot more than the 2% fees,” says Ritter. Were SpaceX to leap that average of 19% on day one, Wall Street’s customers would pocked a one-day, paper gain of $9.5 billion. The initial investors got their shares due to their status as the firms’ largest, commission-paying trading customers. In exchange for winning the super-cheat shares, says Ritter, they typically rebate about 30% of the one-day gain to the book runners who anointed them in future business. In SpaceX’s case, then, the two or three lead book runners would collect an extra nearly $3 billion (30% of the roughly $9.5 billion windfall). Let’s assume three lead underwriters. Each would garner a total as high as $120 million in fees, and another $1 billion courtesy of the super-discount pricing, for a total of almost $1.1 billion.

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